The prime focus in this article is on ocean waves (which have always captured the scientific imagination), although results from wind-wave tank studies are also introduced wherever appropriate. Growth mechanisms fall naturally into three phases: (a) the onset of waves on a calm sea surface, (b) mature growth in the confused sea state under moderate winds, and (c) sea-spray-dominated wave environments under very high wind speeds. Of these three phases, (b) has the greatest general importance, and numerous practical formulas have been developed over the years to represent its properties. Figure above, illustrates the sea state which occurs at the top end of phase (b) in a strong gale (wind speed c. 25ms -1, Beaufort force 9).
An important consideration is that wave generation by wind involves three main physical processes: (1) direct input from the wind, (2) nonlinear transfer between wavenumbers, and (3) wave dissipation. This article is specifically dedicated to (1); however, we briefly review (2) and (3) below.
Nonlinear interactions within the wave system can only be neglected for infinitesimal waves. To a first approximation, the wind wave can be regarded as almost sinusoidal with negligible steepness (i.e., linear), but its very weak mean nonlinearity (i.e., finite steepness and deviation of its shape from the sinusoid) is generally believed to control the evolution of the wave field. Theoretical models of the air–sea boundary layer
indicate that the input of momentum from the wind is centered in the short gravity waves. The wind pumps energy mostly into short (high-frequency) and slowly moving waves of the wave field which then transfer this energy across the continuous spectrum of waves of all scales mainly toward longer (lower-frequency) components, which may be traveling at speeds close to the wind speed, thus allowing them to grow into the dominant waves of frequencies close to the peak frequency of the wave (energy) spectrum. The transfer of energy toward shorter (higher-frequency) waves where it is dissipated occurs at a much less significant rate.
Wave breaking is the major player in the third important mechanism, which drives wave evolution – wave energy dissipation. The Southern Ocean has the greatest potential for wave growth due to the never ceasing progression of intense storm systems over vast expanses of sea surface, unimpeded by land masses. Yet, wave models (http://www.knmi.nl/waveatlas/) indicate that the significant wave height (the average crest-to-trough height of the one-third highest waves) rarely goes beyond 10 m. The process, which controls the wave growth, is the dissipation by wave breaking, and to a lesser extent radiation of wave energy away from the storm centers, and into the adjacent seas.
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| The sea state during a strong gale. |
Nonlinear interactions within the wave system can only be neglected for infinitesimal waves. To a first approximation, the wind wave can be regarded as almost sinusoidal with negligible steepness (i.e., linear), but its very weak mean nonlinearity (i.e., finite steepness and deviation of its shape from the sinusoid) is generally believed to control the evolution of the wave field. Theoretical models of the air–sea boundary layer
indicate that the input of momentum from the wind is centered in the short gravity waves. The wind pumps energy mostly into short (high-frequency) and slowly moving waves of the wave field which then transfer this energy across the continuous spectrum of waves of all scales mainly toward longer (lower-frequency) components, which may be traveling at speeds close to the wind speed, thus allowing them to grow into the dominant waves of frequencies close to the peak frequency of the wave (energy) spectrum. The transfer of energy toward shorter (higher-frequency) waves where it is dissipated occurs at a much less significant rate.
Wave breaking is the major player in the third important mechanism, which drives wave evolution – wave energy dissipation. The Southern Ocean has the greatest potential for wave growth due to the never ceasing progression of intense storm systems over vast expanses of sea surface, unimpeded by land masses. Yet, wave models (http://www.knmi.nl/waveatlas/) indicate that the significant wave height (the average crest-to-trough height of the one-third highest waves) rarely goes beyond 10 m. The process, which controls the wave growth, is the dissipation by wave breaking, and to a lesser extent radiation of wave energy away from the storm centers, and into the adjacent seas.